Which mathematical model is most commonly used by high-performing retailers to predict Customer Lifetime Value (CLV) when dealing with non-contractual customer relationships?

In today's data-driven retail environment, Customer Lifetime Value (CLV) calculations have become essential for strategic decision-making. Mathematical models help retailers predict future spending patterns and optimize marketing investments. This poll tests your knowledge of how advanced mathematics is applied to retail CLV modeling - separating those who understand the quantitative backbone of modern retail strategy from those who simply observe the results.

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Pareto/NBD (Negative Binomial Distribution) model
Simple Linear Regression model
Markov Chain Monte Carlo simulation
Bayesian Hierarchical Classification model