Which mathematical concept is NOT commonly used in developing retail customer churn prediction models?

Customer churn prediction has become a critical application of mathematics in modern retail. Sophisticated algorithms and statistical models help businesses identify which customers are at risk of leaving. Understanding the mathematical foundations behind these predictive models can give product managers and analysts a competitive edge in developing effective retention strategies.

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Markov Decision Processes
Fourier Transformation Analysis
Logistic Regression with Regularization
Random Forest Classification