Which mathematical concept is NOT typically used in retail machine learning models for customer churn prediction?

Machine learning has revolutionized retail analytics, but how well do you understand the mathematical principles powering these systems? This poll tests your knowledge of the specific mathematical concepts that underpin retail ML applications. From predictive algorithms that forecast inventory needs to recommendation systems that drive personalized shopping experiences, mathematics forms the backbone of modern retail technology.

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Markov Decision Processes
Fourier Transformation
Logistic Regression
Gradient Boosting