Which e-commerce innovation is credited with causing the closure of thousands of independent bookstores in the 1990s-2000s before itself facing disruption from digital books?

The publishing industry has undergone dramatic transformations in how books reach readers. E-commerce platforms have revolutionized not just how we buy books, but how authors reach audiences and even how books are published. This trivia question explores a pivotal moment in the evolution of book retail that changed the literary landscape forever.

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Amazon's online bookstore (launched 1995)
Barnes & Noble's website (launched 1997)
Google Books marketplace (launched 2002)
Alibaba's global book platform (launched 1999)