Which mathematical concept forms the foundation of collaborative filtering algorithms widely used in retail personalization systems?

In today's data-driven retail environment, sophisticated mathematical algorithms drive personalization strategies that help businesses tailor recommendations to individual customers. These algorithms analyze purchasing patterns, browsing behavior, and demographic data to create personalized shopping experiences. How well do you understand the mathematical foundations that power modern retail personalization systems?

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Matrix factorization and linear algebra
Differential calculus and partial derivatives
Euclidean geometry and trigonometric functions
Boolean logic and truth tables