Which mathematical concept is MOST fundamental to how retail AI systems determine personalized product recommendations for individual shoppers?

Artificial Intelligence in retail is revolutionizing how stores operate, but many don't realize the complex mathematical foundations that power these systems. From predictive analytics to dynamic pricing, mathematics is the hidden language behind modern retail AI. This poll tests your knowledge of how mathematical concepts are applied in retail AI technologies that are transforming shopping experiences today.

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Collaborative filtering using matrix factorization and vector similarity measures
Simple arithmetic averaging of previous purchase prices
Boolean logic gates determining binary yes/no purchase decisions
Pythagorean theorem for calculating physical distance between products in store