Which mathematical concept forms the foundation of collaborative filtering algorithms used by major e-commerce platforms to generate product recommendations?

E-commerce platforms leverage sophisticated mathematical algorithms to optimize user experience and drive sales. Behind the scenes, these platforms employ various mathematical concepts for recommendation engines, pricing strategies, and conversion optimization. This poll tests your knowledge about how mathematics powers modern e-commerce platforms and creates competitive advantages in the digital marketplace.

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Matrix factorization and singular value decomposition (SVD)
Calculus-based differential equations
Gaussian elimination for solving linear systems
Euclidean geometry and trigonometric functions